Study Skills for Niagara University Courses

1. Read in a place with few distractions.
2. Try to sit in the same place each time you read history.
3. Read when you’re most alert. Avoid reading when you’re tired, distracted, or upset.
4. If history challenges you, avoid reading it at the end of a study session. Push yourself to read earlier.
5. Schedule time to complete your reading.
6. Get interested:
   - ask yourself who wrote this, when was it written (that is, what was going on in the country and the world at that time), and why was it written
   - try to predict the author's thoughts
   - try to connect the chapter with previous chapters
   - try to connect the primary source readings with the textbook
   - try to connect the chapter with events happening in the nation or world today.
   - try to connect what you’re reading with what you've learned in other courses, or with your own observations or experiences.
   - read critically by asking questions while you read. For example, if you read: “Direct government intervention in the economy, government provision of extensive social services, government involvement in and support for science and industry – all these are by-products of the Great Depression and World War II.” (Present Tense: The United States Since 1945 by Schaller, Schulzinger and Anderson, 2004, p. 3), you could ask these questions:
   - Why didn’t the government intervene in these areas before the Great Depression?
   - What kinds of social services did the government begin to provide?
   - How did the government support science and industry?
   - Where did funding for all these new initiatives come from?
   - Did this extra funding cause any hardships?
7. Combine mental and physical activities. For example, write notes and underline key points in your textbook, outline the reading, or make a cluster map.
8. Vary your activities. For example, alternate reading history with doing accounting problems or finishing a chemistry lab report.
9. Keep a distractions list. Jot down things that distract you while you’re reading but that you need to remember (for example, running an errand or making an appointment).
10. Keep a tally of how many times your mind wanders while you are reading.
11. Prop up your book, so your angle of vision is approximately 90º.
12. Avoid moving your lips, sliding your finger along the lines, and moving your head from left to right as you read.
13. Avoid distracting physical activities such as tapping your foot or chewing gum while you read.
14. As you read, consider the author(s). Consider why and how the author wrote what you’re reading.
15. Treat reading as only the first step in the reading process. One reading is seldom enough. For mastery, you’ll also need to re-read, review, write summaries, and/or discuss the material with others.
16. Be sure to look up unfamiliar words or references. When you skip over them, you miss meaning. This sentence about the Great Depression would be unclear if you didn’t know the exact meaning of the two underlined words: “…economic hardship heightened family stress and conflict by disrupting customary division of labor and authority within families, exacerbating dissension over economic issues…” (p. 5)
17. Establish a purpose for reading each section of chapters by turning headings into questions. Try to begin your questions with "WHAT," "HOW," and "WHY," because these questions words lead to more detailed responses. For example:
    HEADING POSSIBLE QUESTION
    “The Roosevelt Revolution”
    What did Roosevelt do that is considered revolutionary?
    “War on the Home Front”
    How did the war affect life at home?
    
    Use your questions to make study sheets. Fold paper about 2” from the left, and write your question in the narrow column on the left. Then read the section to find the answer. Searching for the answers can help you read more actively. Next, write notes to answer your question on the right-hand side. When you’re done, fold your paper to make a study sheet that you can use to quiz yourself.
    
    When possible, move beyond questions that begin with WHAT, WHEN or WHERE. For instance, for the heading “Dawn of the Atomic Age,” you might begin with the question “When did the Atomic Age begin?” but continue with questions such as “How did the Atomic Age develop?” and “How did the Atomic Age alter life in the 20th century?” The active thinking needed to write such questions can lead to greater understanding of the material.
    
    Also, connect subheadings to broader headings. This heading in a history textbook “The Foreign Policy of Ronald Reagan” is followed by the subheading “A New Anticommunist Offensive.” Connect them by asking Why was there a resurgence of anti-Communism under Ronald Reagan? What foreign policy strategies were employed by Reagan? What was the outcome? Such questions can be effective test preparation.
18. Use the "S-Q-3 R" method of reading, but add a "W" step. “S-Q-3 R" stands for "Survey - Question - Read - Recite - Review." This systematic approach to reading includes specific steps before you begin to read, and more steps after you finish reading:
    Survey - In about 3-5 minutes, glance over the headings in the chapter to discover the main points that will be developed. Also, read the summary paragraph, if there is one.
    Question - To arouse your curiosity and increase your comprehension, turn each heading into a question. The questions can also help you distinguish the main point from the explanatory details. Turning a heading into a question is really a simple task, but it requires a conscious effort on your part.
    Read - Read carefully, to answer the question (usually to the end of that headed section). Actively search for the answer.
    Recite - Now look away from the book and try to recite the answer to each of your questions. Use your own words, and include an example. If you can, you know what you just read. If you can't, glance back over the section. An excellent way to do this reciting from memory is to jot down cue phrases in outline form on a sheet of paper. Make these notes very brief.
    Review - After the material has been read, look over your notes to get a bird’s-eye view of the points and their relationship, and check your memory of the content by reciting the major subpoints under each heading. This checking of your memory can be done by covering up the notes and trying to recall the main points. Then uncover each major point and try to recall the subpoints listed under it.
    Write - This is an extension of “Review.” In addition to just thinking about what you remember, write the material down. Write lists, write summaries, write answers to questions. Writing helps you commit the material to memory.
19. Make Connections.
    The textbook is dense with facts. You may need a method of summarizing the sections and paragraphs. As you work your way though the textbook, concentrate on the relationship between facts and events and the interpretations that the author provides.
    To use an example on page 159 of Present Tense called the “Stirrings of Détente,” your notes might condense a few hundred words into something more manageable:
    
    Theme
    Détente in the late 1950s: a lessening of tensions between the Soviet Union and the U.S.
    
    Examples/Evidence
    Eisenhower and Khrushchev talk at summit meetings; temporary moratorium on nuclear tests.
    - Tensions stemmed in part because balance of power reached - sides could destroy each other.
    - Growing prosperity in Europe and changes in the leadership of the Soviet Union took some of the edge off the Cold War
    - In 1959, Vice-President Nixon on good will trip to the Soviet Union and Soviet leader Khrushchev visits the U.S.
    
    Outcome
    - Downing of American U2 spy plane flying over the Soviet Union derailed progress and the opportunity to limit nuclear testing slipped away. Tied to these larger themes or processes
    - Cold War
    - Eisenhower’s foreign policy
    - Limiting nuclear weapons.
    
    Key terms/People/Places
    - Detente
    - Eisenhower
    - Nixon
    - Khrushchev
20. Suggestions for reading primary sources, such as the readings in Major Problems in American History Since 1945.
    a.) Read the first paragraph carefully to determine the main idea.
    b.) As you read subsequent paragraphs, focus your attention on the first sentence of each paragraph.
    c.) Pay particular attention to signal words like “however,” “despite,” “moreover,” and “thus.”
    d.) Take notes on the general main points in an outline or on a timeline.
    e.) When you finish reading, re-read the first paragraph.
    f.) Write a one-paragraph summary. Imagine you’re telling someone what you just read. Stay focused on the major concepts or events.
    g.) Meet with a few classmates to discuss what you think are the key points.
21. When reading primary source materials, ask yourself:
    a.) Why did the professor ask us to read this?
    b.) What is the author trying to explain?
    c.) How was the piece developed?
    d.) What are the key points?
    e.) Do I understand each of the key points? Each concept? Each term?
    f.) What is the author’s point of view? Is it explicitly stated? Or implied?
    g.) What questions might the professor ask about this reading during class? On an exam?
    h.) How would I organize my answers to them?
    i.) How does this reading material fit with the material in the textbook? In the lectures?

1. Staple the course syllabus in your notebook and refer to it often.
2. Arrive early to get a good seat and to review your notes from the previous class.
3. Sit near the front and away from the door, to minimize distractions.
4. Try to sit near the center of a row, so you can see all the boards.
5. Keep your notes together, in a spiral notebook or on loose-leaf paper in a binder.
6. Use a separate notebook for each class, so if you lose it you won’t lose all your notes.
7. Carefully read all assigned material BEFORE class so you can listen & participate more actively.
8. Look over your notes from the previous class, so you can understand the “story” of history (that is, the cause-effect relationships between historical events).
9. Draw a line for a 2” margin on the left-hand side of each page, or leave the backs of each page blank, and after class use this space for editing or summarizing your notes, for writing questions based on the notes, or for adding details from the textbook.
10. Bring your HIS 199 book to class.

1. Date your notes, and number each page if you take notes on loose-leaf paper.
2. Write legibly, and streamline your handwriting. (Recopying notes can be an effective study strategy, but if you don’t have time your original notes must be readable.)
3. Observe your professor’s style, and notice any changes in voice, facial expression, and body language.
4. Avoid merely copying the material on the board. Instead, write your own notes with fuller, more detailed information.
5. Add details, examples, and explanations that are NOT on the board or overhead.
6. Listen for key phrases such as “The most important aspects ...“ or “Four of the most commonly identified causes...” or “I want you to know this.”
7. Record all details that your professor mentions, not just the ones on the board, to increase your understanding of terms or concepts.
8. Use a signal (such as s or * ) to indicate when you’re confused.
9. Occasionally glance over the last few lines of your notes to fill in gaps or to rewrite illegible words.
10. Leave plenty of blank spaces, especially if the lecture moves rapidly, and then fill in details or missing information as soon as possible after class, by consulting the textbook or asking classmates.
11. Develop abbreviations that you’ll recognize later.
12. Use numerals instead of writing out numbers.
13. Omit vowels in long words, or write only the beginnings of long words.
14. Notice how much time your professor spends on an idea. (The more time spent on an idea, the more important it is, thus the more prominence it may have on the test.)
15. Indent, to distinguish main ideas from details and examples.
16. Continue to take notes during class discussions.
17. Avoid writing down every single word your professor says, instead of trying to listen and then rephrase details succinctly yet accurately.
18. Look at your professor and maintain eye contact, to remain focused.
19. Ask questions whenever you’re confused, either during class or office hours or via email.
20. Jot down unfamiliar words and terms that your professor uses.
21. Avoid daydreaming or “zoning out” and push yourself to remain focused for the entire class.
22. Think actively about the content of the lecture. If your professor provides lecture aids, such as outlines and PowerPoint slides, be sure to take special note of the information they include, but do not let them be the limit of your note-taking in class or use them as an excuse to avoid paying attention. Be sure to add details from your professor’s lecture. Most PowerPoint slides are not meant to be your full set of class notes. Rather, they are an outline of what will be covered in class. It’s your job to fill in details and examples.
23. Try to visualize what your professor is describing.
24. Date any handouts and keep them with the day’s notes.
25. Take notes right up to the very end of class, and remain quiet and attentive.
26. Continue to take notes during films, videos/DVDs, and class discussions.

1. Think about the lecture as you leave class and immediately afterwards.
2. Edit your notes in the 2” margin or on the opposing pages immediately after class.
3. Fill in any gaps in your notes very soon after class.
4. Highlight, circle, or mark important ideas and new terms.
5. Review your notes frequently - perhaps even daily – especially if HIS 199 is difficult for you. (Research has shown that many frequent study sessions over time result in greater retention than one last-minute cramming session.)
6. Try to write possible test questions as you review your notes, then close your notes and see if you can answer them.
7. Get acquainted with classmates and exchange phone numbers and email addresses.
8. Look up any unfamiliar words or terms that you heard in class.

Remember that a good essay:

• Is well written. Words are well chosen and sentences are well constructed. Sentences and paragraphs transition smoothly.
• Is coherent and logically structured.
• Is free of grammatical and mechanical mistakes.
• Makes clear the argument being advanced.
• Provides evidence to support assertions. (This is important. Let the evidence carry the weight of your paper. Merely declaring something to be true doesn’t make it so. Your evidence is what will convince the reader of the validity of your argument.)
• Acknowledges multiple viewpoints and anticipates objections effectively.
• Is analytical and not a mere recitation of facts, dates, and events. However, sufficient narrative description is provided to place the argument in context. If you mention a specific historical event, or a person, or a document, you provide enough description of the event, person, or document, for the reader to understand what you are talking about. Remember, you can’t persuade readers of the validity of your argument if they don’t understand the evidence.
• Employs primary source materials when appropriate. A few examples include:
• Quotes or firsthand accounts from people who participated in an event
• Public opinion polls
• Population, employment, and other statistics
• Official documents (speeches, the text of legislation, etc.)
• Accurately quotes, paraphrases, summaries, and cites sources.
• Makes it clear when information, opinions, or facts come from a source as opposed to coming from you.

In a history class, you will read two main types of materials: primary sources and secondary sources. Primary sources form the “raw data” of history, and include things like government documents, speeches, memoirs, diary entries, newspaper and magazine articles, and eyewitness accounts of events. Most of the primary sources we will be looking at were created at the time of the event being described, and they provide historians with a window into the past. Secondary sources are books and articles written by historians based on the primary sources, and incorporate their own arguments and interpretations of the events.

Each chapter in your Major Problems in American History Since 1945 book includes both primary and secondary sources. The primary sources are at the beginning of the chapter, in the section titled “Documents,” while the secondary sources follow in the “Essays” section. You should not approach these two types of readings in the same way, nor should you read them the same way you might read a textbook, where your goal is to read for information. Here are some pointers for reading these types of sources:

 Reading the Documents in Major Problems

There are a number of things you need to think about to use primary sources effectively. Each of these points has a space on the accompanying chart for you to fill in as you work through the documents.

• What type of source is this? Historians use lots of different sources, and you need to understand what type of source you are looking at to get the most out of it. You should note the kind of source you are looking at. Some examples of documents you will see in Major Problems: diary entries, secret government reports, memoirs, political speeches, transcripts of conversations, newspaper and magazine articles, police reports, and charts and graphs. These sources have very different audiences and purposes, which will be discussed below.
  
• Who is the author and why is this person historically significant? Many of the documents in Major Problems are written by well-known historical figures, while others are written by people you may not have heard of before. You should note not only the name of the author, but also some identifying information. This will help you to assess the point of view of the author. For example, Chapter 2 contains a report written by the Soviet Ambassador to the United States, Nikolai Novikov, on US policy in the early Cold War. Why is it important to keep in mind his official position? The fact that he is a Soviet diplomat provides a useful balance to the American documents in the chapter, and is a signal to you as a reader that his perspective is going to be different from that of the American officials. That same chapter includes a speech by Senator Joseph McCarthy. You will learn in class that McCarthy is known for his drive to root all communist influence out of American government in the early 1950s. You should keep this in mind as you read the document, as it tells you something about McCarthy’s perspective as an author.
  
• When is the document written? Knowing the date of the document will help you to place it in the chronology of the course. However, when you think about the date, go beyond noting simply the month and year. Where does this document fit into the larger chronological scope of the class? For example, if you look at a document on the Vietnam War, think about how the date of production fits into what you know about how the war changed over time: was it produced at the beginning of the conflict or near the end? This will help you to place each individual document into its larger historical context.

 **To find the answers to the questions above, be sure to check the brief introduction to each document section in Major Problems, as this will identify the documents included and often discuss their larger significance. At the bottom of the first page of each document is a citation for the source of the document, which can provide useful information.**

 These first three questions ask you to look for basic factual information about the document, the “who, what, where and when.” The next group of questions ask you to go a step farther, to think about the “hows and whys” of history. This will require you to think more deeply about the sources, the message of the authors, and how these documents fit into the larger themes of the course. This is where the interesting work begins!

• Who is the author’s intended audience and what is the author’s purpose for writing? These two questions are closely related, and to answer them you need to have thought about the questions above. Many of the documents you will read were written to persuade someone to do something: perhaps to convince the president to support a particular policy, to encourage the American people to vote for a particular candidate, or to win the public’s support for a movement for reform, such as civil rights. Once you understand who the target audience is, think about why the author chooses to address them. What does the author hope to convince them to do?
  
• What are the key points of the author’s argument? This is where you should begin to evaluate the body of the document. How does the author structure the argument? What does the author use as supporting evidence? You will find, for example, that in the presidential speeches historical references are often used to make a point. Think about how the speechwriter uses these references to reach the American people with a specific message.
  
• What is the value of this document to you as a student of history? This is the “what’s the point” question, or, at its most fundamental level, why is your professor making you read this particular document? Why is it so important? Think about how this document sheds light on a particular event you have discussed in class or a course theme. Many of these documents, when read together, give conflicting opinions about events. How does this help us to develop a more complex view of historical events and debates?

Some of the documents you are assigned for class will be discussed in more depth than others, and it may not be possible to write a long answer to each of the above questions for every document. But if you keep these six points in mind, along with the specific details that your individual professor asks you to focus on, you should have a good grasp of the primary documents you need to read for History 199.

Reading the Essays in Major Problems

The essays in Major Problems are secondary sources written by historians, often using some of the documents included in the document section of each chapter. Reading critical essays requires a different technique than that used to read a textbook. While you read a textbook for content and information, when you read these critical essays you should read for the argument. What point is the author trying to make, and how does the historian use evidence to support that point? Many of these essays discuss in more depth a particularly important historical episode and try to encourage the reader to think about these events from a different perspective. Keep in mind that when read together, the essays in a chapter often present contrasting viewpoints.

Most of the essays in Major Problems are written at a high academic level, which means there will probably be words and concepts that you are not familiar with. Please don’t let this keep you from reading the essay: make a note of the sections you don’t understand, or the words you are unfamiliar with, and bring them up in class or see your professor in office hours. Chances are, if you don’t understand them there will be other students in your class in the same situation! One of the most valuable skills you have the opportunity to develop in college is the ability to read and comprehend at a high level, but you can’t develop this skill if you don’t try to work through difficult texts. This is where you, as a student, can take the initiative to get the most out of your classes.

Hint: Each chapter of Major Problems begins with a short introduction in italics, and each set of essays has a short introductory paragraph that places the essays in the context of larger historical debates. Be sure to read these sections before reading the essays!
Questions to ask for critical essays:

• What is the author’s main argument? This is usually given in the first few paragraphs of the article. If you have trouble finding it there, be sure to look at the conclusion. Once you understand the point the author is trying to make, it will be easier to determine what parts of the essay are most important.
  

• What supporting evidence does the author provide for their argument? How does the author make the case for their argument? Are there specific historical examples that are used? Does the author respond to opposing arguments and perspectives?
  

• Do you buy the author’s argument? After reading the author’s argument and evidence, think about where you stand on the issue. This question is a good way to think about how you might discuss a particular essay in class.
• How does this essay fit into class discussions and course themes? Does it provide a different interpretation from that in your textbook or class lectures? 
  

By Stefanie Wichhart, Assistant Professor of History, Niagara University